Belly Tales

I got a phone call last night from a good friend from college, who has just recently been diagnosed with an ovarian cyst, and had been told by her doctor not to worry too much about it and was prescribed birth-control pills to help manage the symptoms. She wanted a second opinion, and I told her what I knew about ovarian cysts (i.e. that they’re very common, usually benign, usually do not affect fertility, and usually spontaneously resolve in a few months without incident), but I did promise that I’d do some more research on the subject for her. So here you go: more than you probably ever wanted to know about ovarian cysts!

An ovarian cyst is a fluid-filled sac that forms on the ovary. The majority of ovarian cysts are benign, and are classified as either functional or organic. We’ll start with functional cysts, because they are simpler and easier to understand.

Functional cysts are fluid-filled sacs which most often form during a normal menstrual cycle—either during the follicular phase or the luteal phase. Follicular cysts are more common and are often undiagnosed because they are usually asymptomatic. During the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle, the follicle ripens while the egg matures and becomes a small, fluid-filled sac in the process. During normal ovulation, when the egg is released the sac breaks open, the fluid is released along with the egg, and the remnants of the sac are eventually re-absorbed. If for some reason the egg is not released (i.e. there is no ovulation), the ripened follicle can remain as a cyst, and may continue to grow through the next menstrual cycle. Follicular cysts can occassionally grow quite large, and the risk of torsion or rupture increases the larger the cyst becomes. However, the majority of follicular cysts usually spontaneously disappear within one to three months.

Luteal ovarian cysts, or corpus luteum cysts, occur during the second half of the menstrual cycle, after ovulation has occurred. Once the follicle has ruptured and the egg has been released, the remaining follicle sac becomes the corpus luteum, which produces progesterone and maintains the endometrial lining of the uterus. If the egg is not fertilized and pregnancy does not occur, the corpus luteum normally disappears through a process called luteolysis, which occurs with the onset of menses. In some cases, though, the corpus luteum does not disappear, and instead seals off after ovulation, fills with fluid and forms a cyst. Luteal cysts are less common than follicular cysts and usually disappear on their own within a few weeks. However, they can sometimes grow up to four inches and may cause bleeding, torsion, or pain.

If a small blood vessel ruptures inside a functional cyst, the cyst fills with blood instead of clear fluid, and is then called a hemorrhagic cyst. However, like follicular and luteal cysts, hemorrhagic cysts rarely rupture, are often self-limiting, and will most likely spontaneously resolve on their own.

Organic cysts are the second type of ovarian cyst, and are much less common than functional cysts. They’re referred to as complex cycts because of how they appear on ultrasound, and may contain blood, serous or solid material inside them. The type of cyst that forms depends on the type of ovarian tissue the cyst arises from. “Mucinous or serous cysts arise from mucinous or secretory ovarian glandular cells and can become very large, though they usually grow slowly.” (Schuiling & Likis, 2006). Another type of organic cyst known as a dermoid cyst arises from ovarian germ cells. Because germ cells have the capability of forming any material in the body, dermoid cysts sometimes contain unusual substances such as hair cells, skin cells, bone cells, tooth enamel or other body material. Dermoid cysts tend to grow rapidly and can become very large. They are rarely malignant, however, because they don’t spontaneously regress and there is some (albeit small) chance of malignancy, dermoid cysts are most often surgically removed . Another kind of organic cyst is known as a cystadenoma, which forms in the stromal tissue on the outside of the ovary, and can also grow quite large and cause a fair amount of pain.

Ovarian cysts can also be caused by other illnesses. Endometrial tissue begins to grow outside the uterus in women with endometriosis, and can sometimes attach itself to the ovary, forming an endometrioma, which is a solid cyst. Women with polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) form multiple functional cysts within their ovaries from repetitive anovulatory cycles, and are often infertile. While neither of these kinds of cysts are malignant, managing these types of cysts requires dealing with the underlying etiology—either endometriosis or PCOS—and these cysts usually do not resolve on their own without assistance.

Because ovarian cysts are usually asymptomatic, many women have them without realizing that they do, and they often resolve on their own without the woman even being aware. Otherwise, the woman may experience pressure or fullness in the abdomen, pain during intercourse, persistent low-back ache, urinary frequency, chronic pelvic pain or pain during menstruation. Ovarian cysts are sometimes detected during a routine pelvic exam if a large mass or fullness is felt around the ovaries. However, diagnosis is most often made by ultrasound (either abdominal or transvaginal ultrasound), and management depends in part on the size of the cyst.

For most functional cysts, nothing needs to be done. Simple cysts don’t require therapy unless they’re larger than 8 cms, rupture or lead to ovarian torsion. The “watch and wait” approach is most often used, since these cysts usually spontaneously resolve on their own. If there is minor pain associated with the cyst, medication like Motrin or Tylenol is usually enough to manage the pain while waiting for the cyst to disappear. Follow-up ultrasounds at 1-3 months after diagnoses are sometimes performed, but aren’t mandatory unless the symptoms persist or worsen. If the cyst is between 5-8 cm, repeat visits to your doctor or midwife may be needed to follow the growth of the cyst. Surgery may be required to drain and remove larger cysts (anything greater than 8 cm), and is usually done either through laparoscopy or laparotomy. Other tests, such as a blood test to check for CA-125, a tumor marker which can indicate malignant growth, may also be performed for larger cysts just to rule out cancer. Oral contraceptive pills can be prescribed to help reduce the likelihood of repeat cyst formation, and may be especially helpful in women who keep having ovarian cysts. Since ovulation and the ripening of a follicle are often the causes of functional cyst formation, birth control prevents this from happening by preventing ovulation.

Organic cysts are generally more complex and usually require medical treatment. An MRI or cat-scan may be used in addition to ultrasound in order to diagnose the exact type of cyst (dermoid, cystadenoma, endomerioma etc.) The tumor marker CA-125 will most likely be checked to rule out cancer, and larger cysts greater than 8 cm will most likely be removed via surgery.

Warning signs for the rupture of an ovarian cyst include nausea and vomiting, fever, sudden, severe abdominal pain, fainting, dizziness, weakness or rapid breathing. In the case of very large cysts, rupture can be quite dangerous, so emergency care should be sought immediately if any of the warning signs appear. Otherwise, as in the case of my friend, who has some type of functional cyst by the sound of it, I’d agree with her doctor’s assessment that she shouldn’t worry too much about it. The cysts will probably go away on their own, and using oral contraceptives will make the likelihood of future cyst formation very, very slim.

References and further resources:

Shuiling & Likis (2006) Chapter 22: Benign Gynecologic Conditions. Women’s Gynecologic Health, pp. 584-587, Boston, MA: Jones and Bartlett.

Varney, H. et. al. (2004) Chapter 14: Common Diagnoses in Women’s Gynecological Health. Varney’s Midwifery: Fourth Edition, p. 406, Boston, MA: Jones and Bartlett.

Women’s Health.gov: Ovarian Cysts

Emedicine: Ovarian Cysts

Texas governer Rick Perry has recently signed an Executive Order requiring all girls between the ages of 11 and 12 to be vaccinated with Gardasil, Merck’s new HPV vaccine, which is currently the only vaccine on the market that treats HPV (other HPV vaccines from other companies are in the pipeline and soon to be approved by the FDA). In response to this, Texas legislators have recently proposed a new bill to remove Gardasil from the vaccination list required by TX law for entry into public school.

Governor Perry’s Executive Order has kicked up a lot of dust. While many people initially opposed universal HPV vaccination under the premise that it would encourage promiscuity in teenagers and women, concerns about the safety of the vaccine, as well as its long-term effects, have also been raised. From a legal standpoint, many people feel that requiring HPV vaccination for entry into school is an enfringement on their rights, particularly since the public health need for this vaccine is not as pressing, given that HPV is not an airborne or contact communicable disease that can be transmitted at school, but is actually an STD requiring genital to genital contact, and the rates of cervical cancer in this country are actually very low (annual pap smear screening for cervical cancer is one of our greatest public health success stories!). Questions have also been raised about the motivation behind this vaccine, given that Merck was a contributor to Perry’s campaign fund, and Merck alone stands to profit from routine vaccination of all girls in Texas, which the New York Times is estimating will cost at least 60 million.

Rachel over at Women’s Health News has posted three very thoughtful posts about this new law which encapsulate much of the current debate. The comments from her readers in particular are very telling:

1) On the Texas HPV Vaccine Law, 2) Backlash against Texas HPV Vaccine law continues, and 3) HPV Vaccine Concerns

For my own part, I would like to address some of the misinformation about the HPV vaccine that is floating around right now. From a reader on Rachel’s site who was arguing against universal vaccination: “…2) There are 15 types of HPV. The vaccine, created by Merck, which has received so much media attention, protects against 2 types of HPV. These two types are implicated in causing 70% of the cervical cancers that develop. 30% are caused by the 13 other types of HPV which this vaccine is no protection against.”

There are actually over 100 genotypes of HPV which have been discovered to date, of which approximately 30 strains are found in the genital mucosa. Of those 30 strains, 15 have been shown to be associated with cervical cancer, in particular types 16, 18, 31, 33 and 35. These types are considered the “high risk” strains and are usually subclinical/ non-detectable. Approximately 70% of cervical cancers result from infection with HPV genotypes 16 and 18. In contrast, HPV types 6 and 11 are considered “low risk”, and are responsible for 90% of all cases of genital warts (i.e. highly clinically detectable). HPV is spread through direct genital to genital contact, and can be transmitted even when using a condom, since a condom does not cover the entire genitalia.

Gardasil is a quadrivalent human papilomavirus L1 virus-like particle vaccine which offers protection against HPV genotypes 6, 11, 16 and 18. In other words, the two strains that are most often responsible for cervical cancer, and the two strains that are most often responsible for genital warts.

However, as many readers have pointed out, Gardasil only offers protection for 2 of the 15 genotypes associated with cervical cancer and only 2 of the genotypes that cause genital warts, and the research is not conclusive on how long Gardasil is able to offer protection, or whether booster vaccines will be needed at a later date. It is also important to note that all of the research on this topic has been funded and carried out by Merck. Most importantly, the pap smear has been a highly effective screening tool for cervical cancer since the 1960s, responsible for early detection and treatment of cervical dysplasia, and the number one reason why cervical cancer rates are so low in this country (although still disproprotionate: cervical cancer rates are highest for low income and uninsured women). Worldwide, cervical cancer is the second largest cause of female cancer mortality, with an estimated 493,00 new cases each year and 274,000 annual deaths. In other words, even if you do choose to be vaccinated with Gardasil, annual pap smears are still crucial.

It will be interesting to see how this plays out, both in the media and in the legislature. It will be interesting to see if other states follow Texas’ lead. The HPV vaccine is an extraordinary breakthrough, the first vaccine ever created that actually targets cancer, but as with any new vaccine or drug touted as a new miracle, I think a little caution in the beginning is well founded, since new research is still incoming and the long-term effects are unknown.

Source: ACOG (Sept., 2006) ACOG Committee Opinion #344: Human Papillomavirus Vaccination. Obstetrics & Gynecology, 108 (3), Part 1: 699-705.

In addition to the moral debate that surrounds giving Gardasil, Merck’s new HPV vaccine, to young girls, the National Vaccine Information Center (NVIC) is also urging against a “universal use” recommendation by the CDC’s Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) on June 29th. The NVIC doesn’t feel that Merck’s clinical trials proved that the HPV vaccine is safe for young girls.

“Merck and the FDA have not been completely honest with the people about the pre-licensure clinical trials,” said NVIC president Barbara Loe Fisher. “Merck’s pre and post-licensure marketing strategy has positioned mass use of this vaccine by pre-teens as a morality play in order to avoid talking about the flawed science they used to get it licensed. This is not just about teenagers having sex, it is also about whether Gardasil has been proven safe and effective for little girls.”

The FDA allowed Merck to use a potentially reactive aluminum containing placebo as a control for most trial participants, rather than a non-reactive saline solution placebo. A reactive placebo can artificially increase the appearance of safety of an experimental drug or vaccine in a clinical trial. Gardasil contains 225 mcg of aluminum and, although aluminum adjuvants have been used in vaccines for decades, they were never tested for safety in clinical trials. Merck and the FDA did not disclose how much aluminum was in the placebo.

Animal and human studies have shown that aluminum adjuvants can cause brain cell death and that vaccine aluminum adjuvants can allow aluminum to enter the brain, as well as cause inflammation at the injection site leading to chronic joint and muscle pain and fatigue. Nearly 90 percent of all Gardasil recipients and 85 percent of aluminum placebo recipients reported one or more adverse events within 15 days of vaccination, particularly at the injection site. Pain and swelling at injection site and fever occurred in approximately 83 percent of Gardasil and 73 percent of aluminum placebo recipients. About 60 percent of those who got Gardasil or the aluminum placebo had systemic adverse events including headache, fever, nausea, dizziness, vomiting, diarrhea, myalgia. Gardasil recipients had more serious adverse events such as headache, gastroenteritis, appendicitis, pelvic inflammatory disease, asthma, bronchospasm and arthritis.

Hmm. This certainly throws a new wrinkle in the story.

You can read the full article over at Red Orbit.

The FDA has recently approved Gardasil, Merck’s vaccine that helps prevent cervical cancer caused by Human Papilloma virus (HPV) strains 6, 11, 16 and 18. This is incredibly exciting news, since this is the first vaccine to target cervical cancer, and the first ever vaccine for cancer, period (amazing! a vaccine for cancer!!!). The vaccine has been approved for young women ages 9 to 26, but the recommendation is to give it to girls ages 11 and 12, preferably before they’ve had sex for the first time.

I was listening to a discussion on the radio this morning about Gardasil and the issues that surround its use, and opinions seem to be pretty reasonable on all sides of the debate. Conservative group are not opposing the vaccine itself, but are arguing against making it mandatory. From the NY Times article on the subject:

“Despite rumors to the contrary, our organization doesn’t oppose the vaccine and we have taken no position regarding mandatory laws,” said Wendy Wright, president of Concerned Women of America, a conservative group based in Washington.

Some groups support the vaccine but oppose mandatory vaccinations because cervical cancer is caused by a sexually transmitted virus.

“We can prevent it by the best public health method, and that’s not having sex before marriage,” said Linda Klepacki of Focus on the Family, a Christian advocacy organization based in Colorado Springs.

That’s a very good strategy, but what if the husband you’ve saved yourself for just so happens to have HPV? While not having sex is certainly a sure-fire way to avoid HPV and other sexually transmitted diseases, women can still get HPV on their wedding night from their very first sexual contact. A vaccine doesn’t promote promiscuity, but rather protects you from a very very very very very common STD that many people (men especially) do not even know they have.

Making this vaccine mandatory may help ensure that it’s covered by insurance companies and federal programs which might otherwise choose not to pay for such an expensive drug (a 3-part series over 6 months, costing $120 per shot, so $360 total). From the same Times article above:

A federal program is expected to provide the vaccine to 45 percent of the children in the United States for whom it is recommended. But state programs that cover other children are having trouble buying other expensive vaccines.

North Carolina, for instance, spends $11 million annually to provide every child with seven vaccines. Gardasil alone would probably cost at least another $10 million.

“Increasingly, states are asked to make a Sophie’s choice about which diseases they will allow children to be hospitalized or killed by,” said Dr. Paul Offit, director of infectious diseases at Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia.

It will be interesting to see how all of this unfolds, but for now, it’s enough just to know that this vaccine has finally been approved. As Dr. Sedlis (the guest professor who lectured us on the interpretation of pap smears) jokingly said, if this vaccine becomes widespread, gynecologists are going to be out of a job in 20 years, since pap smears and the mangement of abnormal paps is their bread and butter. This is a vaccine that could possibly someday eliminate the need for routine pap screening for all women, and make cervical cancer, which is already rare in this country, all but obsolete. That’s pretty powerful stuff!

Addendum:
Slate Article: very astute break down of many of the issues surrounding the vaccine, including the costs, benefits and risks and moral issues, well worth reading.
Moderately Insane: HPV Insanity: interesting break down the risks v. benefits of the HPV vaccine, in very plain English.
Women’s Health News post on HPV vaccine, full of amazing resources, per usual.

My friend and I spent a fair chunk of time this morning going over the management of abnormal pap smears. How ironic, then, to come home and turn on my computer and find this story on the BBC website about the high levels of anxiety women feel when they’re told they have an abnormal pap result—especially when (as the study rightly points out) SO very few abnormal paps are actually cancerous! Thanks to Dr. Papanicalou, cervical “cancer” is almost always caught and treated while it’s still in the pre-cancerous stage, i.e. not actually cancer at all. Yet so few women in the clinic where I’ve been working even know what the pap test is for—they generally know that they need one every year, and they dutifully come in for their annual, but they’re not always entirely sure what it’s testing. I wonder how often their pap results are carefully explained to them. I guess research like this is a good reminder to make sure that the women you’re taking care of fully understand what the results mean, so that they don’t go home terrified that they have cancer when all they have is ASCUS (atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance, which isn’t even a pre-cancerous lesion, and which will most likely spontaneously resolve on its own, since only 0.1% - 0.2% of all women with ASCUS actually have cervical cancer….i.e., one to two women out of thousand!!) I haven’t had to break the news of an abnormal pap result to a woman yet, but all of this is duly noted.

Our midwifery department arranged a special treat for us today: a demonstration of the brand new speculum that’s out on the market, FemSpec.

Looks pretty strange, doesn’t it? Has anyone ever used one of these things? Supposedly it works much better than a regular speculum because it doesn’t allow the vaginal walls to collapse inward and obstruct the view, it’s always warm, always sanitary, and a lot softer, more comfortable and less threatening-looking. It’s inserted like a tampon, and then inflated once it’s inside the vagina like a blood pressure cuff. Nifty, ultra-luxe, and definitely designed for private practices that can shell out for the more expensive, new product.

We all got samples, and I gave mine a whirl. My overall impression was that on your average nulliparous woman with an anteverted uterus, this probably works like a charm…but what about women with deeply posterior cervices and retroverted uteri? And the FemSpec is opaque, so how are you supposed to get a good look at the vaginal walls, while you’re in there? The sales rep insisted that “the doctor” will have no problem visualizing the vaginal walls during removal of the FemSpec, but I’m not quite convinced. She also assured us that the extra lever that comes with every FemSpec means that “the physician” will have no problem visualizing those posterior, hard-to-reach cervices. She kept using the pronoun “he” as well.

I’m sure on some level she must have realized that she was talking to a room full of midwives and future midwives, but maybe she was nervous, and unable to deviate from her script, and it just didn’t quite click in her brain. Maybe she had no idea that saying doctor all the time might not fly so well in a room full of midwives who do paps just as often as docs. Maybe she’s just a new, young saleswoman who hasn’t yet learned that you court whatever audience you’re giving your pitch to. In any case, it kind of rubbed me the wrong way.

I’m still hardly competant at using the conventional speculum, let alone the new one. It will be really interesting to see if these actually start to infiltrate the market, and which clinics (if any) will begin to use them. As for me, I’m reserving judgement until I have an opportunity to actually use one in a clinical setting, but a note to FemSpec: teach your sales reps that midwives and physician assistants and nurse-practitioners and sometimes even nurses ALL use speculums, not just doctors. A more all-inclusive sales pitch might actually improve your sales.

Today was devoted to the flora of the vagina: what’s normal, what’s not, what happens when yeast decides to take up residence, or when the lactobacilli flee in droves, or when all sorts of unfriendly sexually transmitted diseases invade. Our professor referred to the vagina as the secret garden, and that’s such a beautiful name for it that I think I’m going to have to steal it and start using it myself. It really IS a secret garden, full of amazing quantities of healthy bacteria that keep the pH nice and low, self-clean and prevent unfriendly bacteria from taking over: such a delicate, yet tenacious, balance. Honestly, the more I learn about the female body, the more amazed I become. We’re so friggin’ cool! I already thought we were cool before school even started, but now the coolness quotient is somewhere up near the “awe” level. I can’t wait to become a midwife and teach other women about just how cool their bodies are. What a dream job.

You know you’re in midwifery school when you find yourself examining your own vaginal secretions under a microscope during your class on microscopy. All of us dutifully trooped off to the bathroom with our Q-tip swabs to collect our specimens, then hurried back to the classroom to make our slides—there were a few nursing students in the hallway watching us with puzzled looks on their faces. It reminded me of the time last semester when a fellow student got told off by a nursing instructor for washing her speculum in the bathroom sink after the peer pelvics. You’d think that by now they would have gotten used to the whacky midwives they share the 7th floor with. Anyway, in theory, I can now distinguish between yeast buds, trichomonas and bacterial vaginosis under the microscope, but thankfully, the only thing I saw on my slide were normal squamous epithelial cells from the walls of my very own secret garden.

Our peer pelvics are tomorrow, and the check-out exam for my partner and I is this Thursday, which is when we’ll perform our head-to-toe assessment, pelvics and all, in front of our professors! So, I’ll be seeing a lot of vaginas this week (although, given my job, I tend to see a lot of vaginas anyway…but I’m never the one inserting the speculum, and certainly never graded on it *eep*). Aaaanyway, I thought I’d mark the occassion by sharing two of my all time favorite vagina sites EVAR: All About My Vagina and Vagina Pagina. All About My Vagina is a fantastic site which is exactly what it sounds like: a young woman’s detailed exploration of absolutely everything having to do with her vagina—arousal, sex, orgasms, smells, ovulation, menstruation, health and wellness, yeast infections—you name it, it’s in there, and all done so well, with tons of humour and frankness and curiousity. Vagina Pagina is a great place to ask and find answers to all of those vagina-related questions that you’ve always wanted to know about, and the Live Journal community is full of bright, fiesty vagina-lovin’ women, with a ton of support thrown in for good measure. They’re both fantastic places to visit…often. I’ll leave you to enjoy them; I’ve got to go study.